ÿWPCÏ l¦,¶E,î:†¾x—1>™ Ä=vá奿ÔÀÆy«yœïÎ.8ÿ•K±êÃ#ès›÷ÚW2Ùôc¾µ-qB†œvõ&7”mØšÌõÓ •ì´NR ô'#³`Þ ˜˜Ò¥¿—x*sJX)Xmþ9ÁSôf*ªðt1Ι7>éŽs›Æ?:òá›`/G5@°Æ;¨¨Øq?³Î¿&@‹ªÖ^{róWØþòz­œ\%6G§¸o¯¸‘ü]Û û*GÜsÐŽmŒJÏQ­N'cV9M"-N»c¿«Ùðˆ˜vU]°¢6Èxz0&%:¬#‹ß¿žš0gTA Z²˜ÖUüF~µ¥DŸ\¤£Çìž)³pœ[´ œ k¥n¬•ͨuzƒÕÜîú/(©¾mç.u9K­J óÅU€ô ñžh7çÀU’È‘@É´u¤,™–þ¹ºw5·znåÓö¯äž À©>dLo_6ñÛ37fB®bŠŒ»Ku^+ñZ0[çI‹—ßOŽ…°t¡g BVÃXâΪ4˜¼“Tæ¬6ŸI¥ä+¼ h[¸vuʳõr[µiâMÀç-¼¢FT:ü‰g‚¬ÞY6Ó>ÌÊdPÑXwˆ«KÙBþÛ|þgþ‹#Éš U?Nc %± 0:· U4>ñ ^ / w; 4? S b md N{ .} 0V««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« 0N@O@˜HP Color LaserJet 4600 PSØÚÈØØÈØÚ0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(üœ$¡¡ÔUSUS.,Ôô\  `‹&Times New Romanz 1é Z„é0ê:i¢×+003|x ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ $Ý ƒ½Þ)ÝÔUSUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔòòÓ  ÓThis€statement€is€taken€from€the€Faculty€Manual€2004„2005.Ð ° ÐCopyright€ðð€2004,€The€Faculty€Center€for€Teaching€Excellence€and€Faculty€Development,Ð œì ÐUtah€Valley€State€Collegeóó(.3½Þ$©©Ý ƒüœ!ÝÔUSUS.,ÔÝ  Ý(ÍO$——ÔÿÔòòóóÔÿÔhttp://www.cetus.org/fair5.htmlhttp://www.cetus.org/fair0.htmlÝ ƒüœ!ÝÔUSUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_Ôò òÔ‡ Qu XXÔÓ  ÓÖ€ ÿÿÖCOPYRIGHTó ó€ò òPOLICY€and€FAIR€USE€STATEMENTÔ#†Xì8X  Qu@#Ôó óÐ ° ÐÌÓ_ÓUVSC€College€Policies€and€Procedures,€A„6.1,€General€Administration,€section€6,€ð ðCopyrightedÐ Ü, ÐMaterialsðð€reads:Ð È ÐÌà0  àð ðDefinitionðð„„Includes€but€is€not€limited€to€printed€and€audio€materials,€video,€film,Ð   ð Ðand/or€computer€software.ÐŒ Ü(#(# ÐÌà0  àð ðDefinition€of€1976€Copyright€Actððð!ð€(1)€Copy€of€most€recent€procedural€guidelinesÐ d ´ Ðmaintained€in€Procedures€Manual;€(2)€Offices€and€procedures€shall€be€designated€in€theÐ P    ÐCollege€Procedures€Manual€to€ensure€that€the€College€and€its€personnel€adhere€to€andÐ <Œ  Ðenforce€all€legal€statutes€and€regulations€governing€the€duplication€and€use€of€copyrightedÐ (x  Ðmaterials.Ðd (#(# ÐÌò òFAIR€USEó ó€(òòInformation€in€this€section€below€on€Fair€Use€is€from€ò òCETUS„„Consortium€forÐ ì<  ÐEducational€Technology€for€University€Systemsó ó€(Copyright€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)1995,€The€Trustees€of€CaliforniaÐ Ü, ÐState€University)ò òó ó.€€Permission€is€hereby€granted€to€reproduce€and€distribute€copies€of€thisÐ È Ðhypertext€publication„„€Ô4‚‰ ÔÝ‚IÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôhttp://www.cetus.org/fair5.htmlÔ6ÎÔÝ‚IÍOâ ÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7òÔ„„for€nonprofit€educational€purposes,Ð ´ Ðprovided€that€copies€are€distributed€with€all€files€unaltered,€that€the€source€is€credited,€and€thatÐ  ð Ðthis€copyright€notice€is€included€on€each€copy.€This€permission€is€in€addition€to€rights€grantedÐ ŒÜ Ðunder€Sections€107,€108,€and€other€provisions€of€the€U.S.€Copyright€Act.Ð xÈ ÐÔ4‚аÔÝ‚IÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôhttp://www.cetus.org/fair0.htmlÔ6ÔÝ‚IÍO+ ÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7”YÔ)óóÐ d´ ÐÌCopyright€law€begins€with€the€premise€that€the€copyright€owner€has€exclusive€rights€to€manyÐ <Œ Ðuses€of€a€protected€work,€notably€rights€to€reproduce,€distribute,€make€derivative€works,€andÐ (x Ðpublicly€display€or€perform€the€work.€But€the€Copyright€Act€also€sets€forth€several€importantÐ d Ðexceptions€to€those€rights.€Key€statutes€make€specific€allowance€for€concerns€such€as€distanceÐ P Ðlearning,€backup€copies€of€software,€and€some€reproductions€made€by€libraries.€The€best€knownÐ ì< Ðand€most€important€exception€to€ownersðð€rights€is€fair€use.Ð Ø( ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€Fair„Use€Statuteó óÔ#†Xì8XXXì8‘ #Ôа (#(# Ðà0  àThe€following€is€the€full€text€of€the€fair„use€statute€from€the€U.S.€Copyright€ActМ!ì(#(# ÐÌò òà0  àSection€107€of€the€Copyright€Act€of€1976.€Limitations€on€exclusive€rights:€Fair€useó óÐt#Ä!(#(# Ðà0  àNotwithstanding€the€provisions€of€sections€106€and€106A,€the€fair€use€of€a€copyrightedÐ `$°" Ðwork,€including€such€use€by€reproduction€in€copies€or€Ô_ÔphonorecordsÔ_Ô€or€by€any€otherÐ L%œ # Ðmeans€specified€in€that€section,€for€purposes€such€as€criticism,€comment,€news€reporting,Ð 8&ˆ!$ Ðteaching€(including€multiple€copies€for€classroom€use),€scholarship,€or€research,€is€not€anÐ $'t"% Ðinfringement€of€copyright.Ð(`#&(#(# ÐÌÐ è)8%( Ðà0  àIn€determining€whether€the€use€made€of€a€work€in€any€particular€case€is€a€fair€use€theÐ ° Ðfactors€to€be€considered€shall€include€ð!ðМì(#(# ÐÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÌà0  à(1)€€òòÔ‡Xì8XXXì8Ôthe€purpose€and€character€of€the€use,€including€whether€such€use€is€of€a€commercialÐ tÄ Ðnature€or€is€for€nonprofit€educational€purposes;óóÔ#†Xì8XXXì8,#ÔÐ`°(#(# ÐÌà0  à(2)€the€nature€of€the€copyrighted€work;Ð8 ˆ(#(# ÐÌà  à(3)€€the€amount€and€substantiality€of€the€portion€used€in€relation€to€the€copyrighted€work€Ð  ` Ðà0  àas€a€whole;€and,Ðü L (#(# ÐÌà0  à(4)€the€effect€of€the€use€upon€the€potential€market€for€or€value€of€the€copyrighted€work.ÐÔ$ (#(# ÐÌòòà0  àThe€fact€that€a€work€is€unpublished€shall€not€itself€bar€a€finding€of€fair€use€if€such€findingÐ ¬ü  Ðis€made€upon€consideration€of€all€the€above€factors.€(Emphasis€added)óóИè (#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€Meaning€of€the€Four€FactorsÐpÀ(#(# Ðà0  àÔ#†Xì8XXXì8²#Ôó óÐ (#(# Ðà0  àWhile€fair€use€is€intended€to€apply€to€teaching,€research,€and€other€such€activities,€aÐ H˜ Ðcrucial€point€is€that€an€educational€purpose€alone€does€not€make€a€use€fair.€The€purposeÐ 4„ Ðof€the€use€is,€in€fact,€only€one€of€four€factors€that€users€must€analyze€in€order€to€concludeÐ  p Ðwhether€or€not€an€activity€is€lawful.Ð \(#(# Ðà0  àÐ (#(# Ðà0  àMoreover,€each€of€the€factors€is€subject€to€interpretation€as€courts€struggle€to€make€senseÐ ä4 Ðof€the€law.€Some€interpretations,€and€their€subsequent€reconstruction€by€policy„makersÐ Ð  Ðand€interest€groups,€have€been€especially€problematic.€For€example,€some€copyrightÐ ¼  Ðanalysts€have€concluded€that€if€a€work€being€used€is€a€commercial€product,€the€"nature"Ð ¨ø Ðfactor€weighs€against€fair€use.€By€that€measure,€no€clip€from€a€feature€film€or€copy€from€aÐ ”ä Ðtrade€book€could€survive€that€fair„use€factor.€Similarly,€some€commentators€argue€that€if€aÐ €Ð Ðlicense€for€the€intended€use€is€available€from€the€copyright€owner,€the€action€will€directlyÐ l¼ Ðconflict€with€the€market€for€licensing€the€original.€Thus,€the€availability€of€a€license€willÐ X ¨ Ðitself€tip€the€"effect"€factor€against€fair€use.€Neither€of€these€simplistic€constructions€ofÐ D!” Ðfair€use€is€a€valid€generalization,€yet€they€are€rooted€in€some€truths€under€limitedÐ 0"€  Ðcircumstances.€Only€one€conclusion€about€the€four€factors€is€reliable:€each€situation€mustÐ #l! Ðbe€evaluated€in€light€of€the€specific€facts€presented.Ð$X"(#(# Ðà0  àÐ (#(# Ðà0  àThe€following€are€brief€explanations€of€the€four€factors€from€the€fair„use€statute.€All€fourÐ à%0!$ Ðfactors€which€affect€fair€use€must€be€taken€into€account€before€reaching€a€conclusion.ÐÌ&"%(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔPurposeÔ#†Xì8XòôÔW#Ôó ó€€Congress€favored€nonprofit€educational€uses€over€commercial€uses.€Copies€usedÐ ¤(ô#' Ðin€education,€but€made€or€sold€at€monetary€profit,€may€not€be€favored.€Courts€also€favorÐ )à$( Ðuses€that€are€ð ðÔ_ÔtransformativeÔ_Ôðð€or€that€are€not€mere€reproductions.€Fair€use€is€more€likelyÐ ° Ðwhen€the€copyrighted€work€is€"transformed"€into€something€new€or€of€new€utility,€such€asÐ œì Ðquotations€incorporated€into€a€paper,€and€perhaps€pieces€of€a€work€mixed€into€aÐ ˆØ Ðmultimedia€product€for€your€own€teaching€needs€or€included€in€commentary€or€criticismÐ tÄ Ðof€the€original.€For€teaching€purposes,€however,€multiple€copies€of€some€works€areÐ `° Ðspecifically€allowed,€even€if€not€ð ðÔ_ÔtransformativeÔ_Ôðð.€The€Supreme€Court€underscored€thatÐ L œ Ðconclusion€by€focusing€on€these€key€words€in€the€statute:€ð ðincluding€multiple€copies€forÐ 8 ˆ Ðclassroom€use.ððÐ$ t(#(# ÐÔ_ÔÌà0  àò òÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔNatureÔ#†Xì8XòôÔý #Ôó ó€€Ô‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThis€factor€examines€characteristics€of€the€work€being€used.€It€does€not€refer€toÐ ü L  Ðattributes€of€the€work€that€one€creates€by€exercising€fair€use.€Many€characteristics€of€aÐ è 8  Ðwork€can€affect€the€application€of€fair€use.€For€example,€several€recent€court€decisionsÐ Ô$  Ðhave€concluded€that€the€unpublished€ð ðnatureðð€of€historical€correspondence€can€weighÐ À  Ðagainst€fair€use.€The€courts€reasoned€that€copyright€owners€should€have€the€right€toÐ ¬ü  Ðdetermine€the€circumstances€of€ð ðfirst€publication.ðð€The€authorities€are€split,€however,€onÐ ˜è  Ðwhether€a€published€work€that€is€currently€out€of€print€should€receive€special€treatment.Ð „Ô  ÐCourts€more€readily€favor€the€fair€use€of€nonfiction€rather€than€fiction.€CommercialÐ pÀ Ðaudiovisual€works€generally€receive€less€fair€use€than€do€printed€works.€A€consumableÐ \¬ Ðworkbook€will€most€certainly€be€subject€to€less€fair€use€than€a€printed€social€science€text.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8J!#ÔÐH˜(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ‡ôÔòXXì8Ôò òAmountÔ#†Xì8XòôÔâ%#Ôó ó€€Amount€is€both€quantitatively€and€qualitatively€measured.€No€exact€measures€ofÐ  p Ðallowable€quantity€exist€in€the€law.€Quantity€must€be€evaluated€relative€to€the€length€ofÐ  \ Ðthe€entire€original€and€the€amount€needed€to€serve€a€proper€objective.€One€court€has€ruledÐ øH Ðthat€a€journal€article€alone€is€an€entire€work;€any€copying€of€an€entire€work€usually€weighsÐ ä4 Ðheavily€against€fair€use.€Pictures€generate€serious€controversies,€because€a€user€nearlyÐ Ð  Ðalways€wants€the€full€image€or€the€full€ð ðamount.ðð€Motion€pictures€are€also€problematicÐ ¼  Ðbecause€even€short€clips€may€borrow€the€most€extraordinary€or€creative€elements.€OneÐ ¨ø Ðmay€also€reproduce€only€a€small€portion€of€any€work€but€still€take€ð ðthe€heart€of€the€work.ððÐ ”ä ÐThe€ð ðsubstantialityðð€concept€is€a€qualitative€measure€that€may€weigh€against€fair€use.ЀÐ(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔEffect€Ô#†Xì8XòôÔ+*#Ôó ó€Ô‡Xì8XXXì8ÔEffect€on€the€market€is€perhaps€even€more€complicated€than€the€other€three€factors.Ð X ¨ ÐSome€courts€have€called€it€the€most€important€factor,€although€such€rhetoric€is€oftenÐ D!” Ðdifficult€to€validate.€This€factor€fundamentally€means€that€if€you€make€a€use€for€which€aÐ 0"€  Ðpurchase€of€an€original€theoretically€should€have€occurred„regardless€of€your€personalÐ #l! Ðwillingness€or€ability€to€pay€for€such€purchase„then€this€factor€may€weigh€against€fair€use.Ð $X" Ðð ðEffect€is€closely€linked€to€ð ðpurpose.ðð€If€your€purpose€is€research€or€scholarship,€marketÐ ô$D # Ðeffect€may€be€difficult€to€prove.€If€your€purpose€is€commercial,€then€effect€is€presumed.Ð à%0!$ ÐOccasional€quotations€or€photocopies€may€have€no€adverse€market€effects,€butÐ Ì&"% Ðreproductions€of€software€and€videotapes€can€make€direct€inroads€on€the€potentialÐ ¸'#& Ðmarkets€for€those€works.Ф(ô#'(#(# ÐÔ_ÔÐ )à$( Ðà0  àò òWeighing€and€Balancing€the€Factors€€ó óA€central€tenet€of€this€analysis€is€that€fair€use€is€aÐ ° Ðflexible€doctrine€that€Congress€wanted€us€to€test€and€adapt€for€changing€needs€andÐ  ð Ðcircumstances.€The€law€provides€no€clear€and€direct€answers€about€the€scope€of€fair€useÐ ŒÜ Ðand€its€meaning€in€specific€situations.€Instead,€we€are€compelled€to€return€to€the€fourÐ xÈ Ðfactors€and€reach€creative€and€responsible€conclusions€about€the€lawfulness€of€ourÐ d´ Ðactivities.€People€will€always€differ€widely€on€the€applicability€of€fair€use,€but€any€reliableÐ P   Ðevaluation€of€fair€use€must€depend€upon€a€reasoned€analysis€of€the€four€factors€of€fair€use.Ð < Œ ÐThe€four€factors€also€need€not€lean€in€one€direction.€If€most€factors€lean€in€favor€of€fairÐ ( x Ðuse,€the€activity€is€allowed;€if€most€lean€in€the€opposite€direction,€the€action€will€not€fitÐ  d Ðthe€fair„use€exception€and€may€require€permission€from€the€copyright€owner.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8x*#Ôò òó óÐ P (#(# ÐÌà0  àò òExamples€of€Fair€Use€Casesó ó€€Ô‡Xì8XXXì8ÔWhile€courts€have€ruled€on€many€fair„use€cases,€few€areÐ Ø(  Ðdirectly€related€to€higher€education.€Nevertheless,€many€cases€do€offer€valuable€guidanceÐ È  Ðfor€the€meaning€of€fair€use€at€colleges€and€universities.€Here€is€a€sample€of€such€cases,Ð ´  Ðwith€an€indication€of€how€courts€apply€the€four€factors€of€fair€use.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8l3#ÔРð (#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔBasic€Books,€Inc.€v.€Ô_ÔKinkoÔ_Ô's€Graphics€Corp.,€758€Ô_ÔF.SuppÔ_Ô.€1522€(Ô_ÔS.D.N.Y.Ô_Ô€1991)ó óÔ#†ôÔòòôÔI5#ÔÔ#†Xì8XòôÔh5#ÔÐxÈ(#(# Ðà0  àÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔÔ_ÔKinkoÔ_Ô's€was€held€to€be€infringing€copyrights€when€it€photocopied€book€chapters€for€saleÐ :Š Ðto€students€as€"Ô_ÔcoursepacksÔ_Ô"€for€their€university€classes.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8¨6#ÔÐ&v(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔPurpose:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÿ7#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔWhen€conducted€by€Ô_ÔKinkoÔ_Ô's,€the€copying€was€for€commercial€purposes€and€notÐ þN Ðfor€educational€purposes.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8M8#ÔÐî>(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔNature:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8V9#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔMost€of€the€works€were€factual€„„€history,€sociology,€and€other€fields€of€study€„„Ð Æ Ða€factor€which€weighed€in€favor€of€fair€use.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8£9#Ôж(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔAmount:Ô#†Xì8XXXì8§:#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8Ô€The€court€analyzed€the€percentage€of€each€work,€finding€that€five€to€25€percentÐ ŽÞ Ðof€the€original€full€book€was€excessive.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ó:#ÔÐ~Î(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔEffect:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ñ;#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€court€found€a€direct€effect€on€the€market€for€the€books€because€the€course„Ð V¦ Ðpacks€directly€competed€with€the€potential€sales€of€the€original€books€as€assigned€readingÐ F – Ðfor€the€students.€Ô_ÔÔ#†Xì8XXXì8><#ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔThreeÔ_Ô€of€the€four€factors€leaned€against€fair€use.€The€court€specificallyÐ 2!‚ Ðrefused€to€rule€that€all€Ô_ÔcoursepacksÔ_Ô€are€infringements,€requiring€instead€that€each€item€inÐ "n  Ðthe€"anthology"€be€individually€subject€to€fair„use€scrutiny.Ð #Z!(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔÔ_ÔMaxtoneÔ_Ô„Graham€v.€Ô_ÔBurtchaellÔ_Ô,€803€F.2d€1253€(2d€Cir.€1986),€cert.€denied,€481€U.S.€1059€(1987)ó óÔ#†ôÔòòôÔ??#ÔÔ#†Xì8XòôÔ^?#ÔÐâ$2 #(#(# Ðà0  àÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔIn€1973,€the€plaintiff€wrote€a€book€based€on€interviews€with€women€about€their€ownÐ ¤%ô $ Ðpregnancies€and€abortions.€The€defendant€wrote€his€own€book€on€the€same€subject€andÐ &à!% Ðsought€permission€to€use€lengthy€excerpts€from€the€plaintiff's€work.€The€plaintiff€refusedÐ |'Ì"& Ðpermission,€and€the€defendant€proceeded€to€publish€his€work€with€the€Ô_ÔunpermittedÔ_ÔÐ h(¸#' Ðexcerpts.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8@#ÔÐT)¤$((#(# ÐÐ @*%) Ðà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔPurpose:Ô#†Xì8XXXì8àB#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8Ô€Although€defendant's€book€was€published€by€a€commercial€press€with€theÐ ° Ðpossibility€of€monetary€success,€the€main€purpose€of€the€book€was€to€educate€the€publicÐ  ð Ðabout€abortion€and€about€the€author's€views.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8-C#ÔÐŒÜ(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔNature:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8’D#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€interviews€were€largely€factual.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ßD#ÔÐd´(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔAmount:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8tE#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔQuoting€4.3€percent€of€the€plaintiff's€work€was€not€excessive,€and€the€verbatimÐ @  Ðpassages€were€not€necessarily€central€to€the€plaintiff's€market.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÁE#ÔÐ0 €(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔEffect:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÖF#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€court€noted€that€the€plaintiff's€work€was€out€of€print€and€not€likely€to€appealÐ  X  Ðto€the€same€readers.€This€case€affirms€that€quotations€in€a€subsequent€work€areÐ ø H  Ðpermissible,€sometimes€even€when€they€are€lengthy.€Implicit€throughout€the€case€is€theÐ ä4  Ðfact€that€the€plaintiff€was€unwilling€to€allow€limited€quotations€in€a€book€that€argued€anÐ Ð  Ðopposing€view€of€abortion;€thus,€fair€use€became€the€only€effective€means€for€the€secondÐ ¼  Ðauthor€to€meaningfully€build€on€the€scholarly€works€of€others.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8#G#ÔШø (#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔÔ_ÔEncyclopaediaÔ_Ô€Britannica€Educational€Corp.€v.€Crooks,€542€Ô_ÔF.SuppÔ_Ô.€1156€(Ô_ÔW.D.N.Y.Ô_Ô€1982)ó óÔ#†ôÔòòôÔåI#ÔÔ#†Xì8XòôÔJ#ÔЀÐ(#(# Ðà0  àÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔFor„profit€producers€of€educational€motion€pictures€and€videos€sued€a€consortium€ofÐ B’ Ðpublic€school€districts,€which€was€systematically€recording€programs€as€they€wereÐ .~ Ðbroadcast€on€public€television€stations€and€providing€copies€of€the€recordings€to€memberÐ j Ðschools.€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8MK#ÔÐV(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ‡Xì8XXXì8Ôò òPurpose:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÿL#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€court€was€largely€sympathetic€with€the€educational€purpose.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8PM#Ôò òó óÐÞ.(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔNature:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8N#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔAlthough€the€films€had€educational€content,€they€were€commercial€productsÐ º  Ðintended€for€sale€to€educational€institutions.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8SN#ÔЪú(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔAmount:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8PO#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€defendant€was€copying€the€entire€work€and€retaining€copies€for€as€long€asÐ ‚Ò Ð10€years.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8O#ÔÐrÂ(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔEffect:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8yP#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€copying€directly€competed€with€the€plaintiff's€market€for€selling€or€licensingÐ J š Ðcopies€to€schools.€The€court€had€little€trouble€concluding€that€the€activities€were€not€fairÐ :!Š Ðuse.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÆP#ÔÐ&"v (#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔÔ‡ôÔòXXì8ÔAmerican€Geophysical€Union€v.€Texaco€Inc.,€37€F.2d€881€(2d€Cir.€1994),€modified,€60€F.3d€913€(1995)ó óÔ#†ôÔòòôÔR#ÔÔ#†Xì8XòôÔ2R#ÔÐþ#N"(#(# Ðà0  àÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€court€ruled€that€photocopying€of€individual€journal€articles€by€a€Texaco€scientist€forÐ À$ # Ðhis€own€research€needs€was€not€fair€use.€The€court€amended€its€opinion€to€limit€the€rulingÐ ¬%ü $ Ðto€"systematic"€copying€that€may€advance€the€profit€goals€of€the€larger€organization.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8(S#ÔИ&è!%(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔPurpose:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÌT#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔWhile€research€is€generally€a€favored€purpose,€the€ultimate€purpose€was€toÐ p(À#' ÐÔ_Ôstrengthen€Texaco's€corporate€profits.€Moreover,€exact€photocopies€areÐ `)°$( Ðnot"transformative";€they€do€not€build€on€the€existing€work€in€a€productive€manner.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8U#ÔÐL*œ%)(#(# Їà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔNature:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8¨V#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€articles€were€factual,€which€weighs€in€favor€of€fair€use.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8õV#Ôа(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔAmount:Ô#†Xì8XXXì8£W#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8Ô€An€article€is€an€independent€work,€so€copying€the€article€is€copying€the€entireÐ ŒÜ Ðcopyrighted€work.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ïW#ÔÐ|Ì(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔEffect:€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8ÖX#Ôó óÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔThe€court€found€no€evidence€that€Texaco€reasonably€would€have€purchased€moreÐ T ¤ Ðsubscriptions€to€the€relevant€journals,€but€the€court€did€conclude€that€unpermittedÐ D ” Ðphotocopying€directly€competes€with€the€ability€of€publishers€to€collect€license€fees.Ð 0 € ÐAccording€to€the€court,€the€Copyright€Clearance€Center€(CCC)€provides€a€practicalÐ  l Ðmethod€for€paying€fees€and€securing€permissions,€so€the€copying€directly€undercuts€theÐ  X  Ðability€to€pursue€the€market€for€licensing€through€the€CCC.€Ô#†Xì8XXXì8#Y#ÔÐô D (#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ‡Xì8XXXì8ÔDespite€an€impassioned€dissent€from€one€judge€who€argued€for€the€realistic€needs€ofÐ Ì  Ðresearchers,€the€court€found€three€of€the€four€factors€weighing€against€fair€use€in€theÐ ¸  Ðcorporate€context.Ô#†Xì8XXXì8Ò[#ÔФô (#(# ÐÌà0  àò òILLUSTRATIVE€SCENARIOSó ó€Faculty€increasingly€find€themselves€in€situationsÐ |Ì Ðwhich€may€involve€the€legitimate€fair€use€of€copyrighted€works.€The€examples€belowÐ l¼ Ðwere€selected€from€current€practices€in€higher€education€and,€depending€on€the€facts,€mayÐ X¨ Ðor€may€not€pass€scrutiny€under€the€fair„use€test.ÐD”(#(# ÐÌà0  àThe€future€undoubtedly€will€expand€on€the€need€for€appropriate€fair€use€as€a€part€ofÐ l Ðeducation.€Faculty€will€have€to€consider€and€balance€the€four€factors€in€situations€such€asÐ X Ðthe€ones€that€follow.ÐôD(#(# ÐÌà0  àFair€use€is€a€flexible€concept€intended€to€be€used.€In€any€situation,€the€careful€evaluationÐ Ì Ðof€the€four€factors€will€tell€you€whether€your€use€is€"fair"€or€whether€you€ought€to€seekÐ ¸ ÐpermissionÔ‡Xì8XXXì8Ô€from€the€copyright€owner.€Ð¤ô(#(# ÐÔ#†Xì8XXXì8¿`#ÔÌà0  àThe€following€scenarios€are€intended€to€emphasize€the€growing€range€and€escalatingÐ |Ì Ðcomplexity€of€copyright€and€fair„use€issues€on€campuses.€Many€readers€may€hope€thatÐ h ¸ Ðthese€scenarios€will€give€them€"the€clear€answer€to€the€fair„use€dilemma."€However,€suchÐ T!¤ Ðreaders€will€experience€some€inevitable€degree€of€frustration:€rarely€does€the€law€provideÐ @"  Ða€clear€answer€that€fits€all€cases.€A€fresh€balancing€of€the€four€factors€of€fair€use€is€theÐ ,#|! Ðmost€reliable€and€defensible€decision„making€method.Ð$h"(#(# ÐÌà0  àò òElectronic€Reservesó ó€€A€professor€has€been€told€by€students€that€it€is€difficult€to€obtainÐ ð%@!$ Ðreserve€materials€because€of€the€large€number€of€students€enrolled.€As€an€alternative,€heÐ à&0"% Ðscans€several€journal€articles€onto€the€campus€network€and€instructs€the€students€on€howÐ Ì'#& Ðto€access€them€so€that€they€may€complete€the€class€assignments.и($'(#(# ÐÔ_ÔÐ ¤)ô$( Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àò òAnalysisó ó€€Access€restrictions€can€have€the€greatest€influence€on€tipping€the€factorsÐ ° Ðin€favor€of€fair€use.€A€problem€with€making€text€available€on€any€network€is€thatÐ  ð Ðit€can€be€accessible€by€readers€far€beyond€the€intended€audience€of€studentsÐ ŒÜ Ðregistered€in€the€class.€Thus,€restrictions€on€access€through€passwords€or€otherÐ xÈ Ðsystems€can€enable€the€professor€to€argue€that€the€purpose€is€solely€to€benefit€theÐ d´ Ðstudents€and€not€to€provide€access€for€others.ÐP  ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àRestrictions€can€also€limit€the€potential€adverse€effect€on€the€market€for€theÐ ( x Ðoriginal.€By€limiting€the€range€of€users€who€may€find€the€document,€the€professorÐ  d Ðcan€minimize€or€eliminate€any€possibility€that€someone€will€retrieve€the€workÐ  P  Ðfrom€the€network€instead€of€purchasing€a€copy.€Some€critics€of€electronic€reservesÐ ì <  Ðhave€argued€that€the€educational€purpose€and€the€minimal€market€effects€cannotÐ Ø(  Ðbe€controlled€because€the€electronic€medium€allows€users€to€print,€download,€andÐ Ä  Ðtransmit€copies€at€little€cost€or€effort€and€thereby€undermine€the€restricted€access.а ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àThe€professor€also€must€watch€closely€the€nature€of€the€material€posted€onÐ ˆØ  Ðreserves€and€the€amount€of€material€from€the€original€source€put€on€reserves.€ÐtÄ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àò òMultimedia€Production/Faculty€ó óA€professor€teaches€a€course€in€which€she€occasionallyÐ Lœ Ðuses€a€piece€of€music,€shows€a€picture,€or€plays€a€piece€of€videotape.€She€has€lawfullyÐ <Œ Ðobtained€all€of€these€materials€and€clearly€may€use€them€in€face„to„face€teaching€under€theÐ (x ÐCopyright€Act.€But€the€professor€would€like€to€reproduce€these€short€items€onto€oneÐ d Ðcompact€disk€in€order€to€prevent€their€loss€or€deterioration,€keep€them€organized,€andÐ P Ðshow€them€in€the€class€by€using€a€single€piece€of€equipment.Ðì<(#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àò òAnalysis€€ó óGuidelines€for€such€uses€are€currently€the€subject€of€negotiations€amongÐ Ä Ðdiverse€interest€groups€under€sponsorship€of€the€Consortium€of€College€andÐ ´ ÐUniversity€Media€Centers.€In€general,€those€guidelines€would€allow€the€creation€ofÐ  ð Ðsuch€a€multimedia€work€in€the€name€of€fair€use€and€allow€its€retention€and€use€inÐ ŒÜ Ðthe€classroom€for€up€to€two€years€wiÔ_ÔthoutÔ_Ô€permission.ÐxÈ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àOne€of€the€complex€fair„use€issues€for€multimedia€production€has€been€anÐ P!  Ðunderstanding€of€its€potential€effect€on€the€market€for€the€originals.€Even€briefÐ <"Œ  Ðexcerpts,€reproduced€into€digital€format,€are€sometimes€said€to€directly€undermineÐ (#x! Ðthe€ability€of€the€creator€or€publisher€to€market€or€license€such€excerpts.€Thus,Ð $d" Ðmaking€the€copies€would€directly€erode€that€potential€market.Ð%P #` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àAlso€problematic€is€the€"nature"€of€the€different€works.€Some€materials€may€be€ofÐ Ø&("% Ða€factual€or€scholarly€nature€and€thus€more€amenable€to€fair€use.€Other€materialsÐ Ä'#& Ðused€in€multimedia€are€often€professional€photography,€music,€or€motion€picturesÐ °($' Ðthat€may€have€a€significant€public€market.М)ì$(` (#` (# Їà0  àò òMultimedia€Production/Student€ó óStudents€in€the€Twentieth€Century€U.S.€History€courseÐ ° Ðare€asked€to€create€an€"electronic€term€paper"€using€lawfully€acquired€resources€from€theÐ  ð Ðinstitution's€library€and€media€center.€While€doing€research,€he€finds€a€book€with€just€theÐ ŒÜ Ðinformation€he€needs€and€photocopies€the€bibliography€and€several€pages€of€images€andÐ xÈ Ðtext.€He€takes€the€photocopies€to€the€student€computer€lab€and€scans€the€material€into€hisÐ d´ Ðelectronic€term€paper.ÐP  (#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àò òAnalysisó ó€€Multimedia€production€in€the€hands€of€students€solely€for€an€individualÐ ( x Ðterm€project€will€more€easily€pass€fair„use€scrutiny.€If€the€use€is€limited€to€the€one„Ð  h Ðtime€project,€the€student€can€easily€argue€that€the€purpose€is€solely€educational.Ð  T  ÐShort€clips€of€non„fiction€works€may€also€receive€favorable€treatment€under€theÐ ð @  Ð"nature"€and€"amount"€factors.€ÐÜ, ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àMoreover,€because€the€work€is€for€one„time€use€only,€and€not€for€furtherÐ ´  Ðreproduction,€broadcast,€or€other€dissemination,€the€copyright€owners€of€theÐ  ð  Ðmaterials€are€not€likely€to€find€a€market€for€licensing€under€these€circumstances.Ð ŒÜ  ÐThus,€the€isolated€individual€uses€may€have€no€significant€adverse€effect€on€theÐ xÈ Ðmarket.Ðd´` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àò òDownloading€or€Printing€a€Document€from€the€Internet€ó óA€professor€is€conductingÐ <Œ Ðresearch€by€finding€materials€on€the€Internet€and€locates€a€report€that€is€directly€relevantÐ ,| Ðto€his€current€study.€The€document€was€made€available€on€the€Internet€with€the€copyrightÐ h Ðowner's€permission,€and€the€professor€had€lawful€access€to€it.€For€research€purposes€only,Ð T Ðthe€professor€wants€to€download€a€copy€of€the€document€to€a€computer€disk€or€print€aÐ ð@ Ðcopy€on€the€attached€printer.€ÐÜ,(#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àò òAnalysis€€ó óThe€Internet€provides€access€to€a€wealth€of€original€material€and,Ð ´ Ðalthough€it€is€freely€and€easily€accessible,€we€must€assume€that€original€materialsÐ ¤ô Ðon€the€Internet€are€protected€by€copyright€until€we€learn€explicitly€that€theÐ à Ðcopyright€owner€has€dedicated€the€materials€to€the€public€domain,€or€theÐ |Ì Ðcopyrights€have€expired.€Therefore,€the€fair„use€limits€for€materials€found€on€theÐ h ¸ ÐInternet€are€essentially€the€same€as€the€fair€use€of€materials€disseminated€by€anyÐ T!¤ Ðother€means.Ð@" ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àSingle€copies€of€short€items€for€a€person's€own€study€may€fall€within€fair€use.€If€aÐ $h" Ðwork€is€freely€available€on€the€Internet,€making€a€copy€will€have€little€or€no€effectÐ %T # Ðon€its€market€simply€because€no€commercial€market€for€the€work€has€beenÐ ð%@!$ Ðestablished€or€claimed.€Nevertheless,€some€publishers€have€argued€that€theÐ Ü&,"% Ðpotential€market€for€charging€Internet€users€for€each€copy€means€that€any€copyingÐ È'#& Ðhinders€the€market.€In€the€meantime,€copying€of€works€that€are€freely€accessible€to€Ð´($'` (#` (# ÐÐ  )ð$( Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àthe€public€for€personal€uses€only€will€likely€satisfy€the€"purpose"€and€the€"effect"Ð ° Ðfactors€of€fair€use.Мì` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àAs€with€photocopying,€one€might€reasonably€conclude€that€the€"nature"€factorÐ tÄ Ðwould€favor€uses€of€non„fiction€rather€than€fiction,€and€that€the€"amount"€factorÐ `° Ðmight€reasonably€favor€copying€excerpts€of€longer€works€or€copying€short€essaysÐ L œ Ðor€articles€rather€than€copying€an€entire€book€or€other€longer€piece.Ð8 ˆ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àò òDeveloping€a€Slide€Collection€ó ó€A€professor€photographs€and€makes€slides€of€a€numberÐ  ` Ðof€reproductions€of€artworks€in€a€book€on€Italian€painting€and€sculpture.€She€plans€toÐ  P  Ðshow€the€slides€to€the€students€enrolled€in€her€course.Ðì < (#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àò òAnalysis€€ó óThis€scenario€is€much€more€problematic€than€it€appears.€The€purposeÐ Ä  Ðmay€be€clearly€educational,€but€when€a€professor€copies€a€photograph,€he€or€she€isÐ ´  Ðreproducing€the€entire€work€of€the€copyright€owner.€Fair€use€seldom€allows€theÐ  ð  Ðreproduction€of€an€entire€copyrighted€work.€Further,€art€is€highly€creative,€soÐ ŒÜ  Ðunder€the€"nature"€factor€a€court€may€not€conclude€that€it€is€the€type€of€workÐ xÈ Ðmeant€to€be€reproduced€to€serve€the€purposes€of€fair€use.Ðd´` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àFurther€complicating€the€scenario€is€the€contention€that€a€photograph€of€a€work€ofÐ <Œ Ðart€actually€embodies€two€copyrights:€the€first€is€the€copyright€to€the€original€art;Ð (x Ðand€the€second€is€the€copyright€to€the€photograph€of€the€work€of€art.€By€thatÐ d Ðstandard,€even€if€the€original€painting€is€now€in€the€public€domain,€the€photographÐ P Ðof€it€may€still€be€under€copyright€protection.Ðì<` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àA€textbook€with€multiple€art€images€is€likely€based€on€the€work€of€many€differentÐ Ä Ðphotographers.€Perhaps€the€most€feasible€method€for€arguing€that€the€"amount"Ð ° Ðand€"effect"€factors€may€weigh€in€favor€of€fair€use€is€by€reproducing€only€a€smallÐ œì Ðnumber€of€images€from€any€one€textbook.€Adverse€effect€on€the€market€may€alsoÐ ˆØ Ðbe€minimized€if€the€publisher€does€not€sell€either€select€slides€or€a€set€of€slidesÐ tÄ Ðfrom€the€textbookÐ` °` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àò òAdapting€Materials€for€Students€with€Disabilities€ó ó€A€university€serves€many€studentsÐ 8"ˆ  Ðwith€various€disabilities.€Certain€works€need€to€be€adapted€to€serve€their€needs,€perhapsÐ (#x! Ðby€creating€large€print€copies€of€some€materials€or€by€creating€a€closed„captioned€versionÐ $d" Ðof€a€commercial€educational€videotape.€The€copyright€owners€have€not€authorized€anyoneÐ %P # Ðto€make€such€versions€available€for€purchase.€In€addition,€some€of€these€adapted€materialsÐ ì%